A Legacy of Deceit: The Historical Record of U.S. Actions and Their Consequences" (from Jamestown to Gaza)
This is posted as a resource From Jamestown to Gaza, compiled with aid of Perplexity. Have fun, or not!
Tecumseh
"A Legacy of Deceit: The Historical Record of U.S. Actions and Their Consequences" (from the Tecumseh Perplexity thread)
Seeing Gaza and Israel’s outrageous actions and reading a few books on the subject, Including, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine by Ilan Pappe, https://open.substack.com/pub/heininger/p/israel-a-book-the-ethnic-cleansing?r=16lm0&utm_campaign=post&utm_medium=web has caused me to examine Settler Colonialism in South Africa as well as examine how Settler Colonialism shaped the United States of America. It is deep in our national soul and perhaps that is one of the reasons we support the Israeli Genocide. Our history is not a pretty picture.
For big picture background, I recommend 1491 and 1493 by Charles C Mann (two of the best books I have ever read), and over the last month I have been reading two books, the novel Panther in The Sky by James Alexandor Thom (for the second time after thirty years) and A Sorrow in our Heart, The Life of Tecumseh by Allan W Eckhart. Also, some other books on the Native American experience from the pilgrims forward found on Project Gutenberg including two more on Tecumseh and a couple by one of my 19th century ancestors, Nehemiah Matson, who wrote of Illinois and Indian wars and Bureau County Illinois.
See what Israeli Settler Colonialism turned Genocide will do to your curiosity… Or at least mine.
A comprehensive chronological list of the events and actions from the pre-USA colonial era to the present: Followed by additional detail for each item on the list and a separate list for slavery.
Mayflower Compact (1620) - Setting precedent for colonists making decisions about land they didn't own
Various "purchases" of Manhattan Island (1626-1667) - Multiple deceptive transactions
Treaty of Hartford (1638) - Ended Pequot War, essentially eradicating the Pequot people
King Philip's War (1675-1678) - Massive Native American losses and displacement
The Walking Purchase (1737) - Pennsylvania defrauded Delaware tribe of 1.2 million acres
Treaty of Lancaster (1744) - Iroquois pressured to cede lands
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) - Iroquois forced to cede large territories
Quebec Act (1774) - Angered colonists by protecting some Native lands
Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778) - First U.S. treaty with Native Americans, quickly violated
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) - Forced Iroquois to cede more lands
Northwest Ordinance (1787) - Facilitated westward expansion
Treaty of Greenville (1795) - Opened Ohio to white settlement
Louisiana Purchase (1803) - Bought land belonging to numerous Native nations
Numerous treaties with Creek Nation (1790-1826) - Gradually stripped Creeks of lands
Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809) - Acquired 3 million acres from various tribes
Indian Removal Act (1830) - Led to forced relocations including Trail of Tears
Treaty of New Echota (1835) - Led to Cherokee Trail of Tears
Mexican-American War (1846-1848) - Provoked to acquire territory
Treaty of Traverse des Sioux (1851) - Sioux tricked into ceding millions of acres
California's 18 "Lost Treaties" (1851-1852) - Never ratified, leaving tribes without reservations
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) - Violated when gold discovered in Black Hills
Dawes Act (1887) - Broke up tribal lands, leading to massive land loss
Spanish-American War (1898) - Used sinking of USS Maine as pretext
Early 1900s - U.S. interventions in Latin America (Banana Wars)
World War I (1914-1917) - Claimed neutrality while supplying arms to Allies
Indian Citizenship Act (1924) - Granted citizenship but didn't fully protect Native rights
1930s-1940s - U.S. corporations doing business with Nazi Germany
Indian Reorganization Act (1934) - Imposed Western-style governments on tribes
World War II - Economic sanctions on Japan potentially provoking conflict
1945 - Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Post-WWII - Establishment of U.S.-centric global institutions (IMF, World Bank, NATO)
Termination policy (1940s-1960s) - Ended federal recognition of many tribes
1950s-1970s - Numerous CIA-backed coups (Iran 1953, Guatemala 1954, etc.)
Vietnam War (1955-1975) - Gulf of Tonkin incident used to escalate involvement
1970s-1980s - Support for authoritarian regimes in Latin America
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) - Extinguished aboriginal land claims in Alaska
1980s - Iran-Contra Affair
1990-1991 - Gulf War, with exaggerated claims about Iraqi actions
1990s-2000s - Sanctions on Iraq leading to civilian suffering
2001-present - War on Terror, including controversial detention and interrogation practices
2003-2011 - Iraq War, justified with false claims about weapons of mass destruction
2011 - Intervention in Libya
2011-present - Drone strikes with civilian casualties in various countries
2013-present - Support for Saudi-led coalition in Yemen
2014-present - Involvement in Syrian Civil War
2017-2021 - Withdrawal from international agreements, imposition of tariffs
2020-2024 - Continued sanctions on countries during COVID-19 pandemic
2022-2024 - Extensive military aid to Ukraine
2023-2024 - Support for Israel in Gaza conflict despite humanitarian crisis
50. 2023-2024 – The Gaza Genocide
This list demonstrates a pattern of actions prioritizing U.S. interests, often at the expense of other nations or peoples, from colonial times to the present day. Settler Colonialism, lying, deceit, theft and chicanery are the Soul of the USA. No wonder we support Israel’s settler colonialism and genocide.
Item 1: Mayflower Compact (1620) The Mayflower Compact was a document signed on November 21, 1620, by 41 adult male passengers of the Mayflower before landing at Plymouth, Massachusetts. It was created because the ship had landed outside the jurisdiction of their intended Virginia Company patent, leaving them without a legal basis for governance.
The document established a rudimentary form of democracy and a covenant to create a civil body politic. It bound the signers to create and abide by "just and equal laws" for the "general good of the colony. "
The Compact was not a constitution but an adaptation of a Puritan church covenant to a civil situation. It did not address the colonists' questionable legal rights to the land they were settling. The original text of the Mayflower Compact has been lost. The oldest known written version appears in "Mourt's Relation" from 1622.
The Compact served as the basis for Plymouth Colony's government until it was absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691.The document was signed only by free adult males. Women, indentured servants, and non-separatist passengers (referred to as "strangers") were excluded from the process.
The Mayflower Compact was created in response to "mutinous speeches" from some passengers who threatened to "use their own liberty" upon landing, as they believed no one had authority over them outside the original patent's jurisdiction.
The agreement facilitated the appointment of John Carver as the colony's first governor.
Item 2: Various "purchases" of Manhattan Island (1626-1667)
Multiple transactions occurred regarding Manhattan Island between Dutch colonists and Native American groups:
1626: Peter Minuit, director of the Dutch West India Company, acquired Manhattan Island from a group of Native Americans, likely the Canarsee, for goods valued at 60 guilders (often cited as equivalent to $24).
The Canarsee were not the primary inhabitants of Manhattan, which was mainly occupied by the Weckquaesgeek, a subgroup of the Wappinger confederacy.
1638: Willem Kieft, Dutch Director-General, "purchased" the same land again from a different group.
1649: Peter Stuyvesant conducted another transaction for the island with yet another Native American group.
1667: The English, having taken control of New Amsterdam (renamed New York), made an additional "purchase" of Manhattan.
These multiple transactions indicate a lack of clear understanding or recognition of Native American land ownership concepts by European colonists.
The Native Americans likely viewed these exchanges as granting usage rights rather than permanent transfer of ownership. European colonists used these transactions to claim legal ownership and justify their occupation of the land. The concept of land ownership differed significantly between Native Americans and European settlers, leading to misunderstandings and conflicts.
These transactions set a precedent for future land acquisitions from Native Americans throughout North America.
Item 3: Treaty of Hartford (1638)
The Treaty of Hartford was signed on September 21, 1638, following the Pequot War. Participants included representatives of the Connecticut River colonies and their Native American allies, the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes.
The treaty declared the Pequot tribe extinct and prohibited them from reforming as a tribe or using the Pequot name.
Terms of the treaty:
Surviving Pequots were divided between the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes.
Some Pequots were enslaved and sent to Bermuda.
Pequot lands were distributed among the colonial governments and their Native American allies.
The treaty banned the use of the Pequot language and name.
It forbade any remaining Pequots from returning to their former lands.
The treaty effectively erased the Pequot tribe as a legal and social entity.
It set a precedent for future colonial treatment of Native American tribes.
The treaty was enforced through military threat against any who might harbor Pequots.
This agreement formalized the dispossession and cultural erasure of the Pequot people.
The treaty's terms were unilaterally imposed by the victorious colonists and their allies.
It marked a significant shift in power dynamics between European settlers and Native Americans in New England.
Item 4: King Philip's War (1675-1678)
King Philip's War, also known as Metacom's War or the First Indian War, was a conflict between Native American tribes and English colonists in New England.
Key facts:
The war began in June 1675 and ended in August 1678.
It was named after Metacom, the Wampanoag chief also known as King Philip.
Causes included land encroachment by colonists, cultural conflicts, and the execution of three Wampanoags by Plymouth Colony.
The conflict spread across Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Maine.
Native American forces initially achieved significant victories, destroying several colonial settlements.
The war resulted in high casualties on both sides:
Approximately 3,000 Native Americans killed
2,500 English colonists killed
12 colonial towns destroyed
Over half of New England's 90 settlements attacked
The conflict ended with the defeat of the Native American alliance.
Consequences for Native Americans:
Metacom was killed and his body quartered
Many survivors were sold into slavery in the West Indies
The Wampanoag and Narragansett tribes were nearly exterminated
Native American power in the region was effectively broken
The war was the deadliest conflict in American history by percentage of population affected.
It accelerated the process of land acquisition by English colonists.
The conflict resulted in significant economic costs for the colonies, estimated at £100,000.
The war led to increased centralization of colonial authority and reduced autonomy for individual settlements
Item 5: The Walking Purchase (1737)
The Walking Purchase was a land transaction between the Penn family and the Lenape (Delaware) Native Americans in Pennsylvania.
Key facts:
Occurred on August 25, 1737.
Based on a disputed 1686 deed that promised the Penns land that could be walked in a day and a half.
Thomas Penn and James Logan orchestrated the purchase.
The Lenape agreed to sell land extending from Neshaminey Creek as far as a man could walk in a day and a half.
The Penns hired three of the fastest runners to complete the "walk."
The route was cleared in advance to ensure maximum distance covered.
Only one runner, Edward Marshall, completed the entire "walk."
The walk covered approximately 70 miles, far exceeding normal walking distance.
Penns then drew the northern boundary perpendicular to the walk's end point, maximizing land gain.
The purchase resulted in the acquisition of 1.2 million acres (4,860 km²) of Lenape land.
The Lenape protested the outcome, claiming fraud and deception.
The transaction caused the Lenape to lose trust in the colonial government.
Many Lenape were forced to move westward due to this land loss.
The Walking Purchase contributed to increased tensions between Native Americans and colonists.
It set a precedent for future fraudulent land deals with Native American tribes.
The purchased land included parts of what are now Carbon, Monroe, Pike, Wayne, Lackawanna, Luzerne, Schuylkill, Northampton, Lehigh, and Bucks counties in Pennsylvania.
Item 6: Treaty of Lancaster (1744)
The Treaty of Lancaster was a land agreement between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British colonies of Virginia and Maryland. Key facts:
Signed on July 2, 1744, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Negotiated by colonial representatives and chiefs of the Six Nations of the Iroquois.
The Iroquois ceded all lands in the colony of Virginia, including the Shenandoah Valley and the Ohio Valley.
In exchange, the Iroquois received £200 in gold and a like amount in goods.
The treaty recognized Iroquois ownership of lands north and west of the Ohio River.
Virginia interpreted the treaty as giving them the right to settle west of the Appalachian Mountains.
The Iroquois believed they were only granting a right of passage through the territory.
This misunderstanding led to future conflicts.
The treaty ignored the land rights of other tribes living in the ceded territories, such as the Shawnee and Delaware.
It set a precedent for future treaties that would gradually push Native Americans westward.
The agreement was part of a larger British strategy to secure Native American alliances against the French.
The treaty's terms were used by the British to claim vast territories in North America.
It contributed to tensions between Native American tribes and European settlers in the Ohio Valley.
The treaty's ambiguities were later exploited by land speculators and colonial governments.
It played a role in setting the stage for the French and Indian War (1754-1763).
The treaty's interpretation remained a point of contention between Native Americans and colonists for decades.
Item 7: Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)
Key facts:
Signed on November 5, 1768, at Fort Stanwix in present-day Rome, New York.
Negotiated between British Superintendent of Indian Affairs Sir William Johnson and representatives of the Six Nations (Iroquois).
The treaty established a boundary line between British colonies and American Indian lands.
The boundary line started at Fort Stanwix and proceeded south and west to the Ohio River, then down to its confluence with the Tennessee River.
The Six Nations ceded lands east and south of this boundary to Great Britain.
The treaty opened up lands that would become parts of western Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and northeast Tennessee.
Over 3,000 American Indians attended the council at Fort Stanwix.
The Six Nations signed on behalf of themselves and other dependent tribes, including the Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo.
The treaty extended the boundary line further west than instructed by the British Board of Trade.
It ignored land claims of other tribes not present at the negotiations, such as the Cherokee.
The treaty contradicted the earlier Treaty of Hard Labour negotiated with the Cherokee.
Sir William Johnson refused orders to renegotiate the boundary line to end at the confluence of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers.
The treaty was controversial before it was signed due to conflicting land claims and interests.
It led to disputes between the Oneida and British over control of the Oneida Carrying Place.
The treaty facilitated westward expansion of colonial settlers and land speculators.
It contributed to tensions between various American Indian nations.
The boundary established by this treaty was later adjusted in Pennsylvania in 1773 to finalize the Line of Property.
Item 8: Quebec Act (1774)
Key facts:
Passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on June 22, 1774.
Officially titled "An Act for making more effectual Provision for the Government of the Province of Quebec in North America".
Expanded the territory of the Province of Quebec to include parts of present-day southern Ontario, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
Removed references to the Protestant faith from the oath of allegiance.
Guaranteed free practice of Catholicism.
Restored the Catholic Church's power to impose tithes.
Reinstated French civil law for private matters while maintaining English common law for public and criminal matters.
Restored the seigneurial system of land management.
Defined the structure of the provincial government, with a governor appointed by the Crown and assisted by a legislative council.
Did not provide for an elected legislative assembly.
Implemented on May 1, 1775.
Aimed to secure the loyalty of French-speaking inhabitants in Quebec.
Revoked the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which had sought to assimilate French-Canadians under English rule.
Considered one of the five "Intolerable Acts" by the Thirteen American Colonies.
Contributed to increased tensions between the American colonies and Britain.
American colonists viewed it as a threat to their westward expansion.
Seen by some American Protestants as favoring Catholicism.
Perceived by American colonists as evidence of British willingness to restrict colonial governments.
Item 9: Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)
Key facts:
Also known as the Delaware Treaty or the Treaty with the Delawares.
Signed on September 17, 1778, at Fort Pitt (present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania).
First treaty between the United States and a Native American tribe.
Negotiated between representatives of the Continental Congress and the Delaware (Lenape) Nation.
The Delaware signatories were White Eyes, The Pipe, and John Kill Buck.
American representatives were Andrew Lewis and Thomas Lewis.
The treaty promised the Delaware Nation statehood if they allied with the United States against the British during the American Revolutionary War.
Offered the Delaware the opportunity to form a state and have representation in Congress.
Guaranteed the Delaware their territorial rights.
Promised U.S. military support to protect Delaware lands from enemy incursions.
Allowed U.S. troops to pass through Delaware territory and use it as a base of operations.
Required the Delaware to provide warriors to fight alongside American forces.
Promised trade goods and provisions to the Delaware.
The treaty was quickly violated by both parties.
White Eyes, a key Delaware negotiator, was killed under suspicious circumstances shortly after the treaty signing.
The promised statehood for the Delaware never materialized.
U.S. settlers continued to encroach on Delaware lands despite treaty guarantees.
The treaty's failure contributed to some Delaware aligning with the British.
It set a precedent for future treaties between the U.S. and Native American tribes, many of which were similarly broken.
Item 10: Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
Key facts:
Signed on October 22, 1784, at Fort Stanwix, New York.
Negotiated between the United States and the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy.
First treaty between the United States and Native Americans after the Revolutionary War.
U.S. commissioners were Oliver Wolcott, Richard Butler, and Arthur Lee.
The treaty forced the Iroquois to cede claims to lands in western New York and Pennsylvania, and north and west of the Ohio River.
The Iroquois were compelled to surrender all prisoners taken during the Revolutionary War.
The treaty established a western boundary for the Iroquois nation, significantly reducing their territory.
It opened up large areas of land for American settlement and speculation.
The Six Nations were not united in their acceptance of the treaty terms.
The Mohawk leader Joseph Brant refused to attend the negotiations.
Some Iroquois leaders claimed they were coerced or deceived into signing.
The treaty ignored land rights of other tribes living in the ceded territories.
It contributed to divisions within the Iroquois Confederacy.
The treaty was part of a series of agreements that gradually pushed Native Americans westward.
It set a precedent for future U.S. treaties with Native American tribes.
The treaty's terms were often violated by American settlers who encroached on Iroquois lands.
It led to increased tensions between Native Americans and the United States government.
The treaty facilitated rapid American expansion into the Ohio Valley.
It disregarded British promises made to the Iroquois during the Revolutionary War.
The treaty's legality was questioned by some Iroquois leaders and later historians.
Item 11: Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Key facts:
Officially titled "An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States Northwest of the River Ohio."
Enacted by the Confederation Congress on July 13, 1787.
Established the Northwest Territory, covering present-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota.
Created a process for admitting new states to the Union from this territory.
Prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.
Established a three-stage process for a territory to achieve statehood:
a. Initial stage with appointed governor and judges
b. Second stage with an elected legislature
c. Final stage of statehood when population reached 60,000 free inhabitantsGuaranteed freedom of religion in the territory.
Established basic legal rights for inhabitants.
Mandated the creation of public schools.
Required "good faith" in dealing with Native American tribes.
Stated that Native American lands could only be taken through treaties or wars authorized by Congress.
Did not recognize Native American sovereignty over their lands.
Facilitated rapid white settlement of Native American territories.
Led to increased conflicts between settlers and Native American tribes.
Encouraged westward expansion of the United States.
Established a template for future U.S. territorial acquisitions and state admissions.
Reaffirmed by the First United States Congress in 1789.
Contributed to tensions leading to the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795).
Ignored existing Native American claims to the land.
Accelerated the dispossession of Native American tribes in the region.
Item 12: Treaty of Greenville (1795)
Key facts:
Signed on August 3, 1795, in Greenville, Ohio.
Negotiated between the United States and a confederation of Native American tribes.
Ended the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795).
U.S. representative was General Anthony Wayne.
Native American signatories included leaders from the Wyandot, Delaware, Shawnee, Ottawa, Chippewa, Potawatomi, Miami, Eel River, Wea, Kickapoo, Piankashaw, and Kaskaskia tribes.
The treaty ceded approximately two-thirds of present-day Ohio and portions of Indiana to the United States.
Established the "Greenville Line" as a boundary between Native American lands and U.S. territory.
Native American tribes ceded most of present-day Ohio except the northwestern corner.
The U.S. paid $20,000 worth of goods to the tribes for the ceded land.
Promised an annual annuity of $9,500 to be divided among the signatory tribes.
Allowed the U.S. to establish trading posts and forts on Native American lands.
Granted the U.S. specific parcels of land for military posts within Native American territory.
Required tribes to seek U.S. approval before selling land to any entities other than the U.S. government.
Prohibited U.S. citizens from settling on or hunting in acknowledged Native American lands.
The treaty was frequently violated by American settlers who encroached on Native American territories.
Led to increased U.S. control over the Ohio Valley and accelerated westward expansion.
Contributed to the further displacement of Native American tribes.
Set a precedent for future treaties that gradually pushed Native Americans westward.
The treaty's terms were used to justify further land acquisitions from Native American tribes.
Marked a significant shift in power dynamics between Native Americans and the United States in the Northwest Territory.
Item 13: Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Key facts:
Acquisition of 828,000 square miles (2,144,520 square kilometers) of territory from France by the United States.
Purchased for $15 million, equivalent to about $300 million in 2021.
Signed on April 30, 1803, in Paris.
Territory stretched from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada.
Doubled the size of the United States.
Negotiated by U.S. envoys Robert Livingston and James Monroe with French Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois.
Authorized by French First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte.
U.S. President Thomas Jefferson initially sought only to purchase New Orleans and parts of Florida.
France offered the entire Louisiana Territory due to financial needs and the threat of war with Britain.
The purchase included land in present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, parts of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, New Mexico, Texas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and Louisiana.
Transferred control of the important port of New Orleans to the United States.
The U.S. Constitution did not explicitly authorize such a land purchase.
Jefferson had concerns about the constitutionality of the purchase but proceeded anyway.
The purchase ignored the land rights and sovereignty of numerous Native American tribes living in the territory.
Led to increased westward expansion and settlement by American citizens.
Resulted in the displacement of many Native American tribes.
Sparked the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the new territory.
Increased tensions with Spain over the precise boundaries of the acquired territory.
Contributed to the eventual forced relocation of many Native American tribes to areas west of the Mississippi.
Significantly altered the balance of power in North America, reducing French and Spanish influence while expanding U.S. control.
Item 14: Numerous treaties with Creek Nation (1790-1826)
Key facts:
Treaty of New York (1790):
First treaty between the U.S. and the Creek Nation
Defined Creek boundaries and promised U.S. protection
Creek ceded some lands in Georgia
U.S. promised to remove white settlers from Creek lands
Treaty of Colerain (1796):
Reaffirmed 1790 treaty boundaries
Creek ceded additional lands in Georgia
U.S. increased annual payments to the Creek
Treaty of Fort Wilkinson (1802):
Creek ceded more land in Georgia
U.S. promised to prevent settler encroachment
Treaty of Washington (1805):
Creek ceded lands between the Oconee and Ocmulgee rivers
U.S. gained permission to build roads through Creek territory
Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814):
Ended Creek War of 1813-1814
Creek forced to cede 23 million acres in Alabama and Georgia
Divided Creek Nation into Upper and Lower Creek
Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818):
Creek ceded all remaining lands in Georgia
Received lands in Alabama in exchange
Treaty of Indian Springs (1821):
Creek ceded more lands in Georgia
Caused divisions within Creek leadership
First Treaty of Indian Springs (1825):
Ceded all remaining Creek lands in Georgia
Signed by a small faction of Creeks led by William McIntosh
Rejected by majority of Creek Nation
Led to McIntosh's execution by Creek opponents
Treaty of Washington (1826):
Nullified 1825 treaty
Creek ceded smaller portion of land in Georgia
Promised removal of Creeks from Georgia within five years
These treaties consistently resulted in:
Gradual loss of Creek lands
Increased U.S. control over Creek affairs
Internal divisions within Creek Nation
Displacement of Creek people
Erosion of Creek sovereignty
Facilitation of white settlement on former Creek lands
The treaties often involved coercion, deception, or exploitation of internal Creek divisions. They set the stage for the eventual forced removal of the Creek Nation to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in the 1830s.
Item 15: Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)
Key facts:
Signed on September 30, 1809, at Fort Wayne, Indiana Territory.
Negotiated by William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory, with representatives of the Delaware, Potawatomi, Miami, and Eel River tribes.
The treaty ceded approximately 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of Native American land to the United States.
The ceded lands were located in present-day Indiana and Illinois.
The U.S. paid $5,200 in goods and $500 in cash for the land, with additional annual payments promised.
The treaty was opposed by Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (The Prophet).
Tecumseh argued that the land belonged to all tribes collectively and could not be sold by a few chiefs.
The Miami chief Little Turtle also opposed the treaty but was overruled by other Miami leaders.
The treaty was signed by only a portion of the tribal leadership, many of whom were intoxicated during negotiations.
Some signatories later claimed they did not fully understand the treaty's terms.
The treaty contributed to rising tensions between Native Americans and U.S. settlers.
It played a role in the formation of Tecumseh's confederacy against U.S. expansion.
The treaty's legitimacy was disputed by many Native Americans.
It led to increased settler encroachment on Native American lands.
The treaty was part of a series of land cessions that gradually pushed Native Americans westward.
It facilitated U.S. expansion and settlement in the Indiana Territory.
The treaty's terms were often violated by American settlers who moved onto unceded lands.
It contributed to the outbreak of the War of 1812 in the western theater.
The treaty exemplified the U.S. strategy of acquiring Native American lands through negotiation with select tribal leaders.
It further eroded Native American sovereignty and land rights in the region.
Item 16: Indian Removal Act (1830)
Key facts:
Signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830.
Authorized the president to negotiate treaties to exchange Native American tribal lands in the eastern United States for lands west of the Mississippi River.
Provided for the removal of the Five Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek), and Seminole.
Allocated $500,000 for the removal process.
Promised Native Americans lands in present-day Oklahoma in exchange for their ancestral lands.
Claimed to be a voluntary program, but often involved coercion and force.
Resulted in the forced relocation of approximately 60,000 Native Americans.
Led to the infamous "Trail of Tears" where thousands of Native Americans died during the journey west.
Ignored previous treaties that had guaranteed Native American land rights.
Passed in the House of Representatives by a vote of 102 to 97.
Supported by southern states seeking to expand cotton production onto Native American lands.
Opposed by prominent figures such as Davy Crockett and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Justified by claims of "civilizing" Native Americans and protecting them from white settlers.
Resulted in significant loss of life due to disease, starvation, and exposure during forced relocations.
Opened up millions of acres of land for white settlement and slavery expansion.
Disregarded the fact that many Native Americans had adopted European-American customs and agriculture.
Led to the establishment of Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) as a destination for removed tribes.
Caused the dissolution of traditional tribal governments and social structures.
Resulted in significant loss of Native American cultural heritage and ancestral lands.
Set a precedent for future U.S. policies of Native American displacement and forced assimilation.
Item 17: Treaty of New Echota (1835)
Key facts:
Signed on December 29, 1835, in New Echota, Georgia.
Agreement between the U.S. government and a small faction of Cherokee leaders.
Ceded all Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi River for $5 million and land in present-day Oklahoma.
Signed by a minority group of Cherokee, led by Major Ridge, his son John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot.
The signatories represented only a small fraction of the Cherokee Nation.
Principal Chief John Ross and the majority of the Cherokee people opposed the treaty.
The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty by a single vote on May 23, 1836.
Gave the Cherokee two years to voluntarily leave their lands.
Only about 2,000 Cherokee voluntarily relocated under the treaty's terms.
Led to the forced removal of approximately 16,000 Cherokee in 1838.
Resulted in the "Trail of Tears," during which an estimated 4,000 Cherokee died.
Violated the Cherokee Nation's constitution, which forbade land cessions without full tribal consent.
Ignored previous treaties that had guaranteed Cherokee sovereignty and land rights.
The treaty signers were later assassinated by other Cherokee for violating tribal law.
Facilitated white settlement on former Cherokee lands in Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and North Carolina.
Caused division within the Cherokee Nation that persisted for generations.
Used by the U.S. government as legal justification for the forced removal of the Cherokee.
Disregarded the fact that many Cherokee had adopted European-American customs and agriculture.
Resulted in significant loss of Cherokee lives, property, and cultural heritage.
Set a precedent for future U.S. policies of Native American displacement and forced relocation.
Item 18: Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
Key facts:
Began on April 25, 1846, and ended on February 2, 1848.
Resulted from U.S. annexation of Texas in 1845, which Mexico still considered its territory.
U.S. President James K. Polk provoked the war by sending troops into disputed territory between Rio Grande and Nueces River.
War officially began after Mexican cavalry attacked U.S. troops in the disputed zone.
U.S. Congress declared war on May 13, 1846.
Major U.S. military operations:
Occupation of New Mexico and California
Invasion of northern Mexico
Capture of Mexico City
Key battles:
Palo Alto
Monterrey
Buena Vista
Veracruz
Cerro Gordo
Chapultepec
Ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848.
U.S. acquired 525,000 square miles of Mexican territory, including California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado.
Mexico ceded 55% of its pre-war territory.
U.S. paid Mexico $15 million for the conquered territory.
U.S. also assumed $3.25 million of debt owed by Mexico to U.S. citizens.
War resulted in 13,780 U.S. military deaths, mostly from disease.
Mexican military deaths estimated between 5,000 and 25,000.
Civilian deaths in Mexico estimated at about 25,000.
War exacerbated sectional tensions in the U.S. over the expansion of slavery.
Led to the Wilmot Proviso, an unsuccessful proposal to ban slavery in acquired territories.
Trained many officers who later fought in the American Civil War.
Intensified manifest destiny sentiment in the United States.
Resulted in long-lasting resentment towards the U.S. in Mexico.
Item 19: Treaty of Traverse des Sioux (1851)
Key facts:
Signed on July 23, 1851, at Traverse des Sioux, Minnesota Territory.
Negotiated between the United States and the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of Dakota.
U.S. representatives were Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and Alexander Ramsey, Territorial Governor.
Dakota ceded approximately 24 million acres of land in present-day Minnesota, South Dakota, and Iowa.
U.S. agreed to pay the Dakota about seven and a half cents per acre for the ceded land.
Treaty initially promised a reservation 10 miles wide on each side of the Minnesota River.
U.S. Senate later removed the reservation provision before ratification.
Dakota were to receive a portion of the payment immediately.
Remaining funds were placed in a government-managed account.
Annual interest payments in cash and goods were promised to the Dakota.
$30,000 allocated for building farms, schools, mills, and blacksmith shops.
$210,000 was divided among traders and mixed-blood relatives of the Dakota.
U.S. government kept more than 80% of the promised money, paying only 5% interest for 50 years.
Dakota leaders signed under pressure, believing the U.S. would take the land regardless.
Negotiations began before all Dakota bands had arrived, despite requests to wait.
Treaty opened land for white settlement in Minnesota Territory.
Led to increased dependency of Dakota on government payments for survival.
Contributed to tensions that eventually led to the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862.
Part of a larger U.S. strategy to acquire Native American lands through treaties.
Resulted in significant loss of Dakota ancestral lands and traditional way of life.
Item 20: California's 18 "Lost Treaties" (1851-1852)
Key facts:
In 1851-1852, U.S. government agents negotiated 18 treaties with California Native American tribes.
These treaties involved approximately 139 distinct groups of California Indians.
The treaties would have set aside 7.5 million acres of land as reservations for the California tribes.
U.S. Senate refused to ratify these treaties, keeping them secret until 1905.
The treaties were discovered in 1905 and finally made public.
Failure to ratify left California Indians without any reserved land base.
Led to the loss of 8.5 million acres of Native American land in California.
California tribes were left landless and without legal protection.
Many California Indians became homeless as a result of these unratified treaties.
The treaties' terms were never implemented, despite being negotiated in good faith by the tribes.
U.S. government continued to enforce the land cessions outlined in the unratified treaties.
California Indians were denied compensation for their lands.
Resulted in widespread poverty and suffering among California Native American communities.
Contributed to the near-extinction of many California Indian tribes.
Led to the loss of access to traditional hunting and gathering grounds for many tribes.
Facilitated rapid white settlement and exploitation of California's resources.
Set a precedent for the U.S. government's disregard of negotiated agreements with Native Americans.
Exemplified the U.S. policy of acquiring Native American lands while providing minimal or no compensation.
Contributed to the destruction of traditional California Indian cultures and ways of life.
The unratified treaties remained unknown to the public and most California Indians for over 50 years.
Item 21: Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
Key facts:
Signed on April 29, 1868, at Fort Laramie in present-day Wyoming.
Agreement between the United States and Lakota, Dakota, and Arapaho Nations.
Established the Great Sioux Reservation, covering the western half of present-day South Dakota.
Designated the Black Hills as "unceded Indian Territory" for exclusive use by the Sioux.
U.S. agreed to abandon forts along the Bozeman Trail.
Promised to keep settlers out of Sioux territory.
Offered food, clothing, and other provisions to the Sioux for 30 years.
Required Sioux children to attend schools on the reservation.
Sioux agreed to allow railroads to be built through their territory.
Treaty included a provision for allotment of reservation lands to individual Indians.
Sioux leaders Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, and Lone Horn signed the treaty.
U.S. violated the treaty in 1874 when gold was discovered in the Black Hills.
General George Armstrong Custer led an expedition into the Black Hills, violating the treaty.
U.S. government failed to keep miners and settlers out of the Black Hills.
Led to the Great Sioux War of 1876-1877.
Resulted in the U.S. unilaterally seizing the Black Hills in 1877.
U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1980 that the seizure of the Black Hills was illegal.
Court awarded over $100 million to the Sioux, which they refused, demanding return of the land.
Treaty's violation led to ongoing legal and cultural conflicts between Sioux and U.S. government.
Exemplified the U.S. pattern of making and breaking treaties with Native American nations.
Item 22: Dawes Act (1887)
Key facts:
Officially titled the General Allotment Act.
Signed into law by President Grover Cleveland on February 8, 1887.
Named after its sponsor, Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts.
Authorized the President to survey Native American tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians.
Allotted 160 acres to each family head, 80 acres to single persons over 18, and 40 acres to single persons under 18.
Land not allotted to Native Americans was declared "surplus" and opened for sale to non-Indians.
Imposed a 25-year trust period on allotted lands, during which they could not be sold.
Promised U.S. citizenship to Native Americans who accepted allotments and adopted "civilized life."
Resulted in the loss of about 90 million acres of Native American land between 1887 and 1934.
Reduced Native American land holdings from 138 million acres in 1887 to 48 million acres by 1934.
Broke up communal tribal lands into individual parcels.
Aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Undermined traditional tribal governments and social structures.
Led to the creation of "checkerboard" reservations with mixed Indian and non-Indian land ownership.
Many Native Americans lost their allotments due to inability to pay taxes or through fraudulent sales.
Facilitated the further encroachment of white settlers onto Native American lands.
Contributed to the erosion of Native American cultural practices tied to communal land use.
Resulted in increased poverty among many Native American communities.
Was amended by the Burke Act of 1906, which allowed "competent" Indians to sell their land.
Remained in effect until repealed by the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934.
Item 23: Spanish-American War (1898)
Key facts:
Lasted from April 21 to August 13, 1898.
Conflict between the United States and Spain.
Main theaters of war: Caribbean (Cuba, Puerto Rico) and Pacific (Philippines, Guam).
Immediate cause: explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898.
U.S. blamed Spain for the Maine explosion without conclusive evidence.
U.S. Congress declared war on April 25, 1898.
Major battles:
Battle of Manila Bay (May 1)
Battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney (July 1)
Battle of Santiago de Cuba (July 3)
U.S. forces quickly defeated the Spanish navy and army.
Spain sued for peace on July 17, 1898.
Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898, ending the war.
Results of the war:
U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines from Spain
Cuba gained independence from Spain but became a U.S. protectorate
U.S. paid Spain $20 million for the Philippines.
War casualties:
U.S.: 385 battle deaths, 2,061 deaths from disease
Spain: approximately 60,000 total casualties
First U.S. overseas war of conquest.
Marked the emergence of the U.S. as a world power.
Led to the Platt Amendment, giving the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.
Resulted in the U.S. acquisition of its first overseas empire.
Sparked the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) as Filipinos resisted U.S. rule.
Accelerated the modernization of the U.S. military.
Fueled U.S. imperialist ambitions in the Caribbean and Pacific.
Item 24: Early 1900s - U.S. interventions in Latin America (Banana Wars)
Key facts:
Series of U.S. military interventions in Central America and the Caribbean from 1898 to 1934.
Major interventions:
Cuba (1898-1902, 1906-1909, 1917-1922)
Panama (1903-1914)
Dominican Republic (1903-1904, 1914-1924)
Nicaragua (1909-1910, 1912-1925, 1926-1933)
Mexico (1914, 1916-1917)
Haiti (1915-1934)
Honduras (1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924-1925)
Motivated by economic interests, particularly those of the United Fruit Company.
Aimed to protect U.S. commercial interests and enforce the Monroe Doctrine.
Resulted in U.S. control over customs houses in several countries.
Led to the establishment of U.S.-friendly governments in multiple nations.
Involved the use of U.S. Marines as an interventionary force.
Resulted in thousands of civilian deaths in occupied countries.
Established U.S. military bases in several Caribbean and Central American nations.
Implemented "Dollar Diplomacy" to advance U.S. business interests.
Trained local constabularies loyal to U.S. interests in occupied countries.
Suppressed numerous anti-U.S. rebellions, particularly in Nicaragua and Haiti.
Facilitated the construction and U.S. control of the Panama Canal.
Led to long-term U.S. economic domination in the region.
Resulted in the term "Banana Republic" to describe politically unstable countries dependent on exported commodities.
Caused widespread resentment towards the U.S. in Latin America.
Established a pattern of U.S. military intervention in Latin American affairs.
Supported dictators and authoritarian regimes aligned with U.S. interests.
Undermined sovereignty and self-determination in affected countries.
Ended officially with the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934, but U.S. influence continued.
Item 25: World War I (1914-1917) - U.S. claimed neutrality while supplying arms to Allies.
Key facts:
U.S. officially declared neutrality on August 4, 1914.
U.S. trade with Allied powers increased dramatically during the war.
U.S. exports to Britain and France rose from $824 million in 1914 to $3.2 billion in 1916.
J.P. Morgan & Co. became the official purchasing agent for the British government in 1915.
U.S. banks provided large loans to Allied powers:
$2.3 billion to Britain
$1.9 billion to France
$187 million to Russia
$143 million to Italy
U.S. arms manufacturers supplied weapons and ammunition to Allied forces.
Bethlehem Steel became the largest arms manufacturer in the world during this period.
U.S. restricted trade with Germany due to British naval blockade.
German submarine warfare targeted U.S. ships supplying Allied powers.
Sinking of RMS Lusitania in 1915 killed 128 Americans, increasing anti-German sentiment.
U.S. protested German submarine warfare while continuing to supply Allied powers.
President Woodrow Wilson's administration permitted U.S. citizens to sail on Allied ships.
U.S. allowed Allied ships to be armed for defense, violating traditional neutrality laws.
U.S. refused to prohibit American citizens from traveling in war zones.
German government viewed U.S. actions as favoring the Allied powers.
U.S. economic prosperity became increasingly dependent on Allied war orders.
U.S. neutrality policy allowed trade with all belligerents but practically favored Allies.
U.S. claimed neutrality while its actions significantly aided the Allied war effort.
U.S. neutrality stance became increasingly difficult to maintain as the war progressed.
This period set the stage for U.S. entry into World War I in April 1917.
Item 26: Indian Citizenship Act (1924)
Key facts:
Officially titled "An Act to authorize the Secretary of the Interior to issue certificates of citizenship to Indians."
Signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on June 2, 1924.
Granted full U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States.
Affected approximately 125,000 Native Americans who were not already citizens.
Did not require Native Americans to give up their tribal citizenship or rights to tribal lands.
Passed by Congress without input from Native American tribes.
Some Native Americans opposed the Act, viewing it as an attempt at forced assimilation.
Did not automatically grant voting rights, as voting was regulated by state law.
Many states continued to deny Native Americans voting rights until the 1960s.
Arizona and New Mexico withheld voting rights from Native Americans until 1948.
Did not resolve issues of tribal sovereignty or self-governance.
Created dual citizenship for Native Americans (U.S. and tribal).
Did not address land rights or resolve ongoing land disputes.
Followed previous legislation that had granted citizenship to specific groups of Native Americans:
1887 Dawes Act
1901 citizenship for Indian Territory (Oklahoma)
1919 citizenship for Native American veterans of World War I
Implemented during a period of forced assimilation policies.
Did not prevent continued discrimination against Native Americans.
Did not provide additional federal protections for Native American rights.
Allowed Native Americans to travel freely without passes previously required by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Did not change the trust relationship between tribes and the federal government.
Represented a unilateral action by the U.S. government affecting Native American legal status without tribal consent.
Item 27: 1930s-1940s - U.S. corporations doing business with Nazi Germany.
Key facts:
Ford Motor Company:
Operated a factory in Nazi Germany producing vehicles for the Wehrmacht.
Ford's German subsidiary used slave labor from concentration camps.
Henry Ford received the Grand Cross of the German Eagle from Nazi Germany in 1938.
General Motors (GM):
Owned Opel, a major German car manufacturer, throughout World War II.
Opel produced trucks and aircraft components for the Nazi military.
GM's German operations were overseen by Nazi Party members.
IBM:
Supplied punch card technology used to track concentration camp prisoners.
IBM's German subsidiary, Dehomag, worked directly with Nazi officials.
Technology used to facilitate identification and deportation of Jews.
Standard Oil (now ExxonMobil):
Supplied fuel to Nazi Germany, including aviation gasoline.
Collaborated with I.G. Farben, a major Nazi industrial conglomerate.
Continued trading with Nazi Germany through neutral countries after U.S. entered the war.
Coca-Cola:
German subsidiary created Fanta specifically for the Nazi market during the war.
Continued operations in Germany throughout World War II.
Chase Bank:
Paris branch collaborated with Nazi authorities to freeze Jewish assets.
Remained open in Paris during Nazi occupation.
ITT Corporation:
Owned 25% of Focke-Wulf, a German aircraft manufacturer that built fighter planes.
Continued to trade with Nazi Germany after U.S. entered the war.
Kodak:
German branch used slave laborers from concentration camps.
Supplied X-ray films to Nazi German military hospitals.
Hugo Boss:
Produced Nazi uniforms using forced labor.
Bayer:
Part of IG Farben conglomerate that produced Zyklon B gas used in concentration camps.
Many U.S. companies continued operations in Nazi Germany after war began in Europe in 1939.
Some corporations claimed they couldn't control their German subsidiaries during the war.
U.S. government initially did not restrict trade with Nazi Germany.
Trading with the Enemy Act was inconsistently enforced.
Some companies received compensation for wartime damage to their German facilities.
Post-war investigations revealed extent of corporate collaboration with Nazi regime.
Many companies faced little to no consequences for their wartime activities in Germany.
Corporate involvement with Nazi Germany often prioritized profits over ethical considerations.
Some U.S. executives expressed admiration for Nazi economic and industrial policies.
These business relationships continued until U.S. entry into World War II, and in some cases, beyond.
Item 28: Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
Key facts:
Also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act or the Indian New Deal.
Passed on June 18, 1934.
Reversed the Dawes Act's privatization of communal holdings of Native American tribes.
Restored to tribes the management of their assets.
Encouraged written constitutions and charters for tribal governments.
Prohibited further allotment of tribal lands.
Authorized the Secretary of the Interior to return surplus lands to tribes.
Established a $10 million revolving credit fund for land purchases and economic development projects.
Provided for the establishment of tribal schools and courts.
Created a preference for Native Americans in hiring for the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Tribes had two years to accept or reject the Act through referendum.
181 tribes voted to accept the Act, 77 tribes rejected it.
Largest tribes to reject the Act were the Navajo and Seneca.
Imposed Western-style governments on tribes, often conflicting with traditional leadership structures.
Did not apply to tribes in Oklahoma and Alaska.
Ended the policy of assimilation pursued by the U.S. government since the 1880s.
Increased federal control over tribal affairs.
Did not restore lands already lost through previous policies.
Created divisions within some tribes over acceptance or rejection of the Act.
Remained the basis of federal Indian policy until the termination era of the 1950s and 1960s.
Item 29: World War II - Economic sanctions on Japan potentially provoking conflict.
Key facts:
U.S. imposed increasingly stringent economic sanctions on Japan from 1937 to 1941.
July 1937: U.S. restricted exports of aircraft and aircraft parts to Japan.
June 1938: U.S. established "moral embargo" on aircraft exports to Japan.
July 1939: U.S. terminated 1911 commercial treaty with Japan.
July 1940: U.S. restricted export of aviation fuel and certain metals to Japan.
September 1940: U.S. imposed embargo on scrap iron and steel exports to Japan.
July 26, 1941: U.S. froze all Japanese assets in the United States.
August 1, 1941: U.S. imposed complete oil embargo on Japan.
Sanctions aimed to curtail Japan's military expansion in Asia, particularly China.
Oil embargo cut off 80% of Japan's oil supply.
Japan imported 80% of its oil from the U.S. prior to the embargo.
Sanctions forced Japan to consider seizing oil resources in Southeast Asia.
U.S. demanded Japan withdraw from China and Indochina as conditions for lifting sanctions.
Japan viewed sanctions as a threat to its national security and imperial ambitions.
Sanctions contributed to Japan's decision to attack Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
U.S. policy makers were aware sanctions could lead to war with Japan.
Secretary of State Cordell Hull warned sanctions might provoke Japanese military action.
U.S. military leaders anticipated potential Japanese attack in response to sanctions.
Sanctions were part of U.S. strategy to deter Japanese aggression without direct military intervention.
Economic pressure on Japan escalated tensions in the Pacific leading up to World War II.
Item 30: Gulf of Tonkin incident and resolution (1964)
Key facts:
Occurred on August 2 and 4, 1964, in the Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of North Vietnam.
USS Maddox reported being attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats on August 2.
Second alleged attack on USS Maddox and USS Turner Joy on August 4 was later disputed.
President Lyndon B. Johnson addressed the nation on August 4, claiming unprovoked attacks.
Johnson requested congressional authorization for military action.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution introduced in Congress on August 5, 1964.
Passed by House of Representatives on August 7 with a vote of 414-0.
Passed by Senate on August 7 with a vote of 88-2.
Signed into law by President Johnson on August 10, 1964.
Resolution authorized the President to take "all necessary measures" in Southeast Asia.
Gave Johnson broad war-making powers without a formal declaration of war.
Used as legal justification for escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam War.
Later evidence revealed the August 4 attack likely never occurred.
Secretary of Defense McNamara may have distorted evidence to mislead Congress.
USS Maddox was on an intelligence mission, contradicting initial government claims.
Resolution passed with minimal debate in Congress.
Senators Wayne Morse and Ernest Gruening were the only dissenting votes.
Resolution compared to a "blank check" for the President by some critics.
Led to significant expansion of U.S. military presence in Vietnam.
Repealed by Congress in January 1971 amid growing opposition to the war.
Item 31: Termination policy (1940s-1960s)
Key facts:
U.S. federal policy aimed at ending government recognition of tribal sovereignty.
Officially began with House Concurrent Resolution 108 in 1953.
Goal was to "terminate" the federal trust relationship with Native American tribes.
Intended to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Sought to end federal supervision over Native American tribes and individuals.
Aimed to subject Native Americans to state and federal taxes.
Eliminated federal protection of Native American land holdings.
Terminated over 100 tribes' federal recognition between 1953 and 1968.
Affected approximately 12,000 Native Americans.
Removed 2.5 million acres of land from protected status.
Major tribes terminated included Menominee, Klamath, and Western Oregon tribes.
Menominee termination led to severe economic hardship and loss of services.
Klamath tribe lost 862,662 acres of forested land.
Accompanied by urban relocation programs to move Native Americans off reservations.
Resulted in loss of tribal land, resources, and cultural identity for many tribes.
Led to increased poverty and social problems in many Native American communities.
Faced growing opposition from Native American activists and organizations.
Policy officially ended under President Richard Nixon in 1970.
Some terminated tribes later regained federal recognition through legal action.
Considered a failure and reversal of previous federal Indian policy.
Item 32: 1950s-1970s - Numerous CIA-backed coups (Iran 1953, Guatemala 1954, etc.)
Key facts:
Iran (1953):
Operation AJAX overthrew democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.
Reinstated Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as absolute monarch.
Motivated by Iran's nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
Resulted in 26 years of authoritarian rule under the Shah.
Guatemala (1954):
Operation PBSUCCESS overthrew democratically elected President Jacobo Árbenz.
Installed military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas.
Motivated by Árbenz's land reforms threatening United Fruit Company's interests.
Led to 36 years of civil war and military rule.
Congo (1960):
CIA involved in the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba.
Supported Joseph Mobutu's rise to power.
Resulted in decades of dictatorship and economic exploitation.
Cuba (1961):
Failed Bay of Pigs invasion attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro.
Trained and armed Cuban exiles for the invasion.
Resulted in strengthening Castro's position and pushing Cuba closer to the Soviet Union.
Brazil (1964):
CIA supported military coup against President João Goulart.
Led to 21 years of military dictatorship.
Indonesia (1965):
CIA provided lists of suspected communists to Indonesian military.
Supported General Suharto's rise to power.
Resulted in mass killings of 500,000 to 1 million alleged communists.
Chile (1973):
CIA supported military coup against democratically elected President Salvador Allende.
Led to 17-year dictatorship under General Augusto Pinochet.
Resulted in thousands of deaths, disappearances, and human rights violations.
Argentina (1976):
CIA supported military junta's overthrow of Isabel Perón.
Led to seven years of military dictatorship and "Dirty War."
Afghanistan (1979-1989):
Operation Cyclone provided arms and funding to Mujahideen fighting Soviet occupation.
Contributed to rise of Taliban and al-Qaeda.
Nicaragua (1981-1990):
CIA supported Contras against Sandinista government.
Led to prolonged civil war and human rights abuses.
These coups often resulted in installation of U.S.-friendly regimes, human rights violations, and long-term political instability in affected countries.
Item 33: Vietnam War (1955-1975
)Key facts:
U.S. involvement began with support for South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam.
Escalated following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964.
U.S. deployed ground combat troops in March 1965.
Peak U.S. troop levels reached 543,000 in April 1969.
U.S. conducted massive bombing campaigns:
Operation Rolling Thunder (1965-1968)
Operation Linebacker (1972)
Operation Linebacker II (1972)
U.S. used chemical defoliants, including Agent Orange, affecting millions of Vietnamese.
My Lai Massacre (1968): U.S. troops killed 347-504 unarmed civilians.
Tet Offensive (1968) marked a turning point in U.S. public opinion.
U.S. expanded the war into Laos and Cambodia.
Paris Peace Accords signed in January 1973, officially ending U.S. involvement.
Saigon fell to North Vietnamese forces on April 30, 1975.
U.S. casualties:
58,220 dead
153,303 wounded
Vietnamese casualties:
North Vietnam and Viet Cong: 1.1 million military dead
South Vietnam: 250,000 military dead
Civilian deaths: 627,000 to 2 million
U.S. draft system disproportionately affected lower-income and minority populations.
Widespread anti-war protests in the United States.
U.S. Congress passed War Powers Resolution in 1973 limiting presidential war powers.
U.S. spent an estimated $168 billion (equivalent to $1 trillion in 2019) on the war.
Resulted in the "Vietnam Syndrome," affecting U.S. foreign policy for decades.
Left long-lasting environmental damage in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
Contributed to political instability in the United States, including the Watergate scandal.
Item 34: 1970s-1980s - Support for authoritarian regimes in Latin America.
Key facts:
Chile:
U.S. supported Augusto Pinochet's regime (1973-1990)
Provided economic aid and military assistance
Pinochet's regime responsible for over 3,000 deaths and 30,000 torture victims
Argentina:
U.S. supported military junta (1976-1983)
Provided military aid and training
Junta's "Dirty War" resulted in 30,000 disappearances
El Salvador:
U.S. supported right-wing government during civil war (1979-1992)
Provided $6 billion in economic and military aid
Government forces committed numerous human rights abuses
Guatemala:
U.S. supported military governments (1954-1996)
Provided military aid and training
Guatemalan military committed genocide against indigenous population
Nicaragua:
U.S. supported Somoza family dictatorship (1937-1979)
Provided military aid and training
Supported Contras against Sandinista government (1981-1990)
Brazil:
U.S. supported military dictatorship (1964-1985)
Provided economic and military assistance
Regime responsible for torture and disappearances
Paraguay:
U.S. supported Alfredo Stroessner's dictatorship (1954-1989)
Provided military aid and training
Stroessner's regime committed numerous human rights violations
Bolivia:
U.S. supported Hugo Banzer's dictatorship (1971-1978)
Provided economic and military aid
Banzer's regime responsible for political repression and human rights abuses
Uruguay:
U.S. supported civilian-military regime (1973-1985)
Provided military assistance and training
Regime conducted widespread political repression
Honduras:
U.S. used as base for Contra operations against Nicaragua
Provided significant military aid
Supported repressive government policies
U.S. support included:
Military aid and training
Economic assistance
Intelligence sharing
Diplomatic backing in international forums
Justifications for support:
Containment of communism
Protection of U.S. economic interests
Maintaining regional stability
Results:
Widespread human rights abuses
Suppression of democratic movements
Long-term political and social instability in affected countries
Increased anti-U.S. sentiment in Latin America
Item 35: Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971)
Key facts:
Signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971.
Largest land claims settlement in U.S. history.
Extinguished aboriginal land claims in Alaska.
Transferred 44 million acres of land to Alaska Native corporations.
Provided $962.5 million in compensation to Alaska Natives.
Created 13 regional Alaska Native corporations.
Established over 200 village corporations.
Required Alaska Natives to enroll in corporations to receive benefits.
Corporations received surface rights to selected lands.
Subsurface rights mostly given to regional corporations.
Prohibited creation of new reservations in Alaska.
Revoked all but one of the existing reservations.
Imposed a 20-year restriction on sale of Native corporation shares.
Did not address subsistence rights on public lands.
Led to significant changes in Alaska Native social and economic structures.
Resulted in loss of millions of acres of traditional use lands.
Created complex corporate structures unfamiliar to many Alaska Natives.
Led to conflicts between tribal and corporate governance.
Caused divisions within Alaska Native communities over resource development.
Continues to be a source of controversy and legal disputes among Alaska Natives.
Item 36: 1980s - Iran-Contra Affair.
Key facts:
Occurred from 1985 to 1987 during Ronald Reagan's presidency.
Involved secret sales of weapons to Iran, violating an arms embargo.
Proceeds from arms sales were used to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua.
Contras were fighting to overthrow the Sandinista government.
U.S. Congress had prohibited funding of Contras through the Boland Amendment.
National Security Council member Oliver North orchestrated the operation.
Israel acted as an intermediary for arms transfers to Iran.
Aimed to secure release of U.S. hostages held in Lebanon by Hezbollah.
Approximately 2,000 TOW anti-tank missiles sold to Iran.
Estimated $30 million diverted to Contra rebels.
Affair exposed in November 1986 by Lebanese newspaper Al-Shiraa.
President Reagan initially denied knowledge of the operation.
Tower Commission appointed to investigate the affair.
Reagan later acknowledged arms sales but denied knowledge of fund diversion.
Several high-ranking officials indicted, including:
Oliver North
John Poindexter (National Security Advisor)
Caspar Weinberger (Secretary of Defense)
North and Poindexter convicted, but convictions later vacated.
President George H.W. Bush pardoned six officials involved in 1992.
Affair damaged Reagan's credibility and popularity.
Violated U.S. policy of not negotiating with terrorists.
Revealed covert operations conducted without congressional oversight.
Item 37: 1990-1991 - Gulf War, with exaggerated claims about Iraqi actions.
Key facts:
Began on August 2, 1990, with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
U.S.-led coalition launched Operation Desert Storm on January 17, 1991.
U.S. claimed Iraqi troops massed on Saudi Arabian border, satellite images later disproved this.
Nayirah testimony: Kuwaiti ambassador's daughter falsely claimed Iraqi soldiers removed babies from incubators.
This testimony was organized by public relations firm Hill & Knowlton, hired by Kuwaiti government.
Incubator story repeated by President George H.W. Bush and senators to justify intervention.
Claims of 312 premature babies dying when removed from incubators were unsubstantiated.
Amnesty International initially supported the incubator claims, later retracted.
U.S. officials inflated the number of Iraqi troops in Kuwait from 100,000 to 250,000.
Claims of Iraq possessing nuclear weapons were exaggerated.
Reports of Iraqi Scud missile accuracy were overstated.
Success rates of Patriot missiles against Scuds were initially overreported.
U.S. military censored and managed media coverage of the war.
Civilian casualty numbers were underreported by U.S. officials.
"Smart bomb" precision and effectiveness were exaggerated.
U.S. downplayed friendly fire incidents.
Environmental impact of oil well fires was initially overstated.
U.S. claimed minimal civilian infrastructure damage, later reports showed extensive destruction.
Post-war studies revealed many coalition air strikes missed their intended targets.
These exaggerations and false claims were used to build public and congressional support for the war.
Item 38: 1990s-2000s - Sanctions on Iraq leading to civilian suffering.
Key facts:
Comprehensive sanctions imposed on Iraq by UN Security Council Resolution 661 in August 1990.
Sanctions continued after Gulf War until 2003.
Prohibited all trade and financial dealings with Iraq, except for medicine and humanitarian aid.
Oil-for-Food Programme established in 1995 to allow limited oil sales for humanitarian supplies.
UNICEF reported 500,000 excess child deaths between 1991 and 1998 due to sanctions.
Infant mortality rates doubled between 1990 and 1999.
Under-5 mortality rates increased from 56 per 1000 live births (1984-1989) to 131 per 1000 (1994-1999).
Malnutrition rates among children under 5 increased from 12% to 23% between 1991 and 1996.
Access to clean water decreased from 90% of the population to 60% between 1990 and 1994.
Sewage treatment capacity fell to 25% of pre-sanctions levels.
GDP per capita dropped from $3510 in 1989 to $450 in 1996.
Inflation reached 1000% in 1994.
Iraqi Dinar devalued from 1 ID = $3 in 1989 to 1 ID = $0.0003 in 1995.
Electricity production fell to 40% of pre-sanctions levels.
Educational system deteriorated, with literacy rates dropping from 89% to 57%.
Healthcare system collapsed, with shortages of basic medicines and equipment.
U.S. and UK repeatedly vetoed attempts to lift or modify sanctions.
UN humanitarian coordinators Denis Halliday and Hans von Sponeck resigned in protest of sanctions.
U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright stated in 1996 that the price of 500,000 dead children was "worth it."
Sanctions continued until the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Item 39: 2001-present - War on Terror, including controversial detention and interrogation practices.
Key facts:
Launched after September 11, 2001 attacks.
Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) passed by Congress on September 14, 2001.
U.S. invaded Afghanistan in October 2001.
U.S. invaded Iraq in March 2003.
Guantanamo Bay detention camp established in January 2002.
779 detainees held at Guantanamo since 2002, many without formal charges.
CIA operated secret "black sites" for detention and interrogation in multiple countries.
Enhanced interrogation techniques approved by Bush administration in 2002.
Techniques included waterboarding, sleep deprivation, stress positions, and sensory deprivation.
Abu Ghraib prison scandal revealed systematic abuse of detainees by U.S. personnel in 2004.
CIA destroyed videotapes of interrogations in 2005.
U.S. Senate report in 2014 concluded CIA torture was more brutal than reported and ineffective.
Extraordinary rendition program involved kidnapping and transferring suspects to other countries for interrogation.
Military commissions established to try detainees, criticized for lack of due process.
Indefinite detention without trial implemented for some suspects.
NSA surveillance programs expanded, including bulk collection of phone records.
Drone strike program intensified, with operations in Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, and other countries.
Civilian casualties from drone strikes estimated in thousands, exact numbers disputed.
Patriot Act expanded government surveillance powers.
War on Terror operations conducted in over 80 countries by 2021.
Item 40: 2003-2011 - Iraq War, justified with false claims about weapons of mass destruction.
Key facts:
U.S.-led invasion of Iraq began on March 20, 2003.
Primary justification was Iraq's alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).
U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell presented evidence of WMDs to UN Security Council on February 5, 2003.
Intelligence used to justify war later proved to be false or exaggerated.
No significant WMD stockpiles or active WMD programs found after invasion.
Iraq Survey Group concluded in 2004 that Iraq had ended its nuclear program in 1991.
Bush administration claimed links between Iraq and al-Qaeda, later disproven.
Invasion conducted without UN Security Council authorization.
Coalition Provisional Authority disbanded Iraqi military, leading to increased insurgency.
Abu Ghraib prison scandal revealed torture and abuse of Iraqi prisoners by U.S. personnel.
Fallujah assaults in 2004 resulted in high civilian casualties and destruction.
Sectarian violence escalated, peaking in 2006-2007.
U.S. troop surge in 2007 temporarily reduced violence.
U.S. combat operations officially ended on August 31, 2010.
Last U.S. troops withdrew on December 18, 2011.
Casualties:
U.S. military deaths: 4,431
U.S. contractor deaths: 3,481
Iraqi civilian deaths estimated between 151,000 to over 1 million
War cost estimated at over $2 trillion for U.S.
Resulted in regional instability and rise of ISIS.
Created power vacuum filled by Iran-backed groups.
Damaged U.S. credibility internationally and domestically.
Item 41: 2011 - Intervention in Libya.
Key facts:
Military intervention began on March 19, 2011.
Led by NATO under UN Security Council Resolution 1973.
U.S. codename: Operation Odyssey Dawn.
U.S. launched 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles in initial assault.
U.S. deployed naval forces including USS Kearsarge, USS Ponce, USS Barry, USS Stout.
U.S. aircraft involved: A-10, B-1B, B-2, AV-8B, EA-18G, F-15E, F-16, P-3.
CIA operatives deployed on the ground to gather intelligence and make contacts with rebels.
U.S. used MQ-1 Predator drones for strikes starting April 23.
U.S. conducted 26% of over 26,000 NATO sorties.
U.S. provided 70% of intelligence capabilities and over 75% of refueling aircraft.
Operation resulted in overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi's government.
Gaddafi killed by rebels on October 20, 2011.
NATO operations officially ended October 31, 2011.
U.S. military spending on operation estimated at over $1 billion.
Intervention conducted without congressional approval beyond 60-day limit set by War Powers Resolution.
U.S. claimed no civilian casualties from its strikes.
Human Rights Watch documented at least 72 civilian deaths from NATO strikes.
Intervention led to collapse of Libyan state and ongoing civil war.
Power vacuum allowed arms proliferation across North Africa.
ISIS and other militant groups gained footholds in Libya following intervention.
Item 42: 2011-present - Drone strikes with civilian casualties in various countries.
Key facts:
U.S. drone program expanded significantly under Obama administration.
Countries targeted include Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Libya, and Afghanistan.
CIA and U.S. military conduct separate drone operations.
Exact number of strikes and casualties disputed due to lack of transparency.
Bureau of Investigative Journalism estimates (as of 2021):
Pakistan: 430 strikes, 2,515-4,026 killed (424-969 civilians)
Yemen: 374 strikes, 1,197-1,779 killed (174-225 civilians)
Somalia: 196 strikes, 1,197-1,410 killed (70-143 civilians)
"Signature strikes" target individuals based on patterns of behavior rather than confirmed identity.
"Double tap" strikes hit same location twice, potentially killing first responders.
2013 leak revealed "baseball card" system for approving drone strikes.
Obama administration claimed near-certainty of no civilian casualties required for strikes outside war zones.
2016 Obama administration report claimed 64-116 civilian deaths from 2009-2015 outside war zones.
Independent estimates of civilian deaths significantly higher than official U.S. figures.
Trump administration revoked Obama-era rule on reporting civilian casualties in 2019.
U.S. rarely acknowledges specific strikes or provides compensation to civilian victims.
Drone strikes have killed U.S. citizens, including Anwar al-Awlaki in 2011.
UN special rapporteurs have questioned legality of U.S. drone program under international law.
Strikes in Pakistan peaked in 2010 with 128 confirmed strikes.
Yemen drone strikes increased after 2011, with 44 strikes in 2012.
Somalia saw significant increase in strikes starting 2017, with 35 strikes in 2017 and 47 in 2018.
Drone strikes continue under Biden administration, with reduced frequency.
Long-term psychological effects on populations living under drone threat documented by human rights organizations.
Item 43: 2013-present - Support for Saudi-led coalition in Yemen.
Key facts:
U.S. began supporting Saudi-led intervention in Yemen in March 2015.
U.S. provided logistical and intelligence support to coalition.
U.S. conducted mid-air refueling for coalition aircraft until November 2018.
U.S. approved arms sales to Saudi Arabia and UAE for use in Yemen.
U.S. special forces deployed on Saudi-Yemen border for counter-terrorism operations.
U.S. conducted drone strikes against AQAP targets in Yemen.
U.S. Navy intercepted weapons shipments allegedly bound for Houthi rebels.
U.S. provided targeting assistance to Saudi-led coalition.
U.S. deployed troops to protect Saudi Arabia from Houthi attacks.
U.S. designated Houthis as a Foreign Terrorist Organization in January 2021, reversed in February 2021.
U.S. Congress passed resolutions to end U.S. involvement, vetoed by President Trump.
U.S. continued arms sales despite evidence of coalition attacks on civilians.
U.S. State Department warned of legal risks for U.S. officials from coalition actions.
U.S. support continued despite UN reports of possible war crimes by coalition.
U.S. provided over $8 billion in humanitarian assistance to Yemen since 2015.
Biden administration announced end to support for Saudi offensive operations in February 2021.
U.S. continued defensive support and arms sales to Saudi Arabia.
U.S. appointed special envoy for Yemen to pursue diplomatic solution.
U.S. faced criticism for role in creating world's worst humanitarian crisis.
U.S. support contributed to prolonging and intensifying the conflict in Yemen.
Item 44: 2014-present - Involvement in Syrian Civil War.
Key facts:
U.S. began airstrikes against ISIS in Syria in September 2014.
U.S. provided arms and training to Syrian opposition groups.
CIA program "Timber Sycamore" supplied weapons to rebels from 2013 to 2017.
U.S. deployed special forces to Syria in October 2015.
U.S. conducted missile strikes against Syrian government targets in 2017 and 2018.
U.S. troops in Syria peaked at around 2,000 in 2017.
U.S. established and maintained military bases in northeastern Syria.
U.S. provided air support for Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF).
U.S. forces clashed with Russian mercenaries in February 2018.
U.S. announced withdrawal of troops in December 2018, later partially reversed.
U.S. maintained control over oil fields in eastern Syria.
U.S. conducted airstrikes against Iranian-backed militias in Syria.
U.S. imposed sanctions on Syrian government and affiliated entities.
U.S. opposed Russian and Iranian military presence in Syria.
U.S. blocked Syrian government access to eastern Syria's resources.
U.S. involvement contributed to prolonging the conflict.
U.S. actions in Syria conducted without explicit congressional authorization.
U.S. presence in Syria criticized as violation of international law by Syria and its allies.
U.S. involvement complicated relations with Turkey, a NATO ally.
U.S. maintained approximately 900 troops in Syria as of 2024.
Item 45: 2022-2024 - Extensive military aid to Ukraine.
Key facts:
U.S. committed nearly $40 billion in assistance to Ukraine since February 2022.
$19 billion allocated for immediate military aid.
$16 billion provided in humanitarian assistance.
U.S. approved provision of advanced weaponry, including Patriot air defense systems and battle tanks.
U.S. increased troop presence in Europe to over 100,000.
U.S. imposed sanctions on Russian officials, banks, and oil and gas industry.
U.S. froze $5 billion of Russian central bank assets in the U.S.
U.S. barred largest Russian banks from SWIFT international payment system.
U.S. restricted dealings with 80% of Russian banking sector assets.
U.S. banned import of Russian crude oil, liquified natural gas, and coal.
U.S. implemented price cap on Russian oil exports with G7 allies.
U.S. Commerce Department restricted exports of high-tech products to Russia.
U.S. sanctioned companies globally suspected of helping Russia evade sanctions.
Congress passed five bills appropriating $175 billion in response to Russia's invasion.
$106 billion of total aid directly supports Ukrainian government.
U.S. provided weapons systems, training, and intelligence to Ukrainian military.
U.S. agreed to allow European allies to provide U.S.-made F-16 fighters to Ukraine.
U.S. supplied Abrams battle tanks, anti-aircraft missiles, artillery shells, and cluster munitions.
U.S. provided coastal defense ships and advanced surveillance systems to Ukraine.
Aid package announced in September 2023 included medium-range cluster bombs and various rockets and armored vehicles, totaling $375 million.
Item 46: 2023-2024 - Support for Israel in Gaza conflict despite humanitarian crisis.
Key facts:
U.S. provided $3.8 billion in annual military aid to Israel.
U.S. expedited delivery of precision-guided munitions to Israel after October 7, 2023 attack.
U.S. deployed two aircraft carrier strike groups to the eastern Mediterranean.
U.S. vetoed multiple UN Security Council resolutions calling for ceasefire.
U.S. bypassed Congress to approve emergency arms sales to Israel.
U.S. supported Israel's right to self-defense while urging minimization of civilian casualties.
U.S. provided intelligence support to Israeli military operations.
U.S. increased military aid to Israel by $14.3 billion in supplemental funding package.
U.S. maintained support despite rising Palestinian civilian death toll.
U.S. abstained from UN Security Council resolution calling for increased humanitarian aid.
U.S. pressured Israel to allow more humanitarian aid into Gaza.
U.S. conducted airstrikes on Iran-backed militias in Iraq and Syria in response to attacks on U.S. forces.
U.S. opposed South Africa's genocide case against Israel at International Court of Justice.
U.S. proposed temporary "humanitarian pauses" instead of ceasefire.
U.S. warned Israel about high civilian casualties but continued military support.
U.S. provided $100 million in humanitarian assistance for Palestinians in Gaza and West Bank.
U.S. attempted to negotiate hostage releases and temporary ceasefires.
U.S. faced domestic and international criticism for its unconditional support of Israel.
U.S. maintained support despite destruction of civilian infrastructure in Gaza.
U.S. continued support as Palestinian death toll surpassed 25,000, with majority being women and children.
Item 47: 2017-2021 - Withdrawal from international agreements, imposition of tariffs.
Key facts:
Paris Climate Agreement withdrawal announced June 1, 2017, effective November 4, 2020.
Withdrew from Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA) on May 8, 2018.
Withdrew from UN Human Rights Council on June 19, 2018.
Announced withdrawal from Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty on February 1, 2019.
Withdrew from UNESCO on December 31, 2018.
Withdrew from Open Skies Treaty on November 22, 2020.
Imposed 25% tariff on steel imports and 10% on aluminum imports in March 2018.
Initiated trade war with China, imposing tariffs on $250 billion of Chinese goods.
China retaliated with tariffs on $110 billion of U.S. goods.
Imposed tariffs on $7.5 billion of European goods in October 2019.
Threatened tariffs on Mexican imports unless Mexico curbed illegal immigration.
Renegotiated NAFTA into USMCA, ratified in 2020.
Blocked appointments to WTO Appellate Body, effectively paralyzing it.
Imposed tariffs on solar panels and washing machines in January 2018.
Threatened tariffs on European auto imports.
Withdrew from Trans-Pacific Partnership on January 23, 2017.
Imposed tariffs on Canadian lumber.
Threatened tariffs on French wines and other goods in response to France's digital services tax.
Imposed tariffs on $1.3 billion of French goods in July 2020.
These actions strained relationships with allies, disrupted global trade, and altered U.S. participation in international organizations and agreements.
Item 48: 2020-2024 - Continued sanctions on countries during COVID-19 pandemic.
Key facts:
U.S. maintained comprehensive sanctions on Iran, Venezuela, North Korea, Syria, and Cuba during pandemic.
Iran sanctions restricted medical supplies and equipment imports.
Venezuela sanctions limited oil exports, reducing government revenue for healthcare.
North Korea sanctions impeded importation of medical equipment and supplies.
Syria sanctions complicated procurement of medical supplies and equipment.
Cuba sanctions restricted medical imports and limited remittances.
U.S. rejected calls from UN and humanitarian organizations to ease sanctions.
U.S. issued limited humanitarian exemptions for some sanctioned countries.
Iran's request for IMF emergency loan blocked by U.S.
Venezuela's access to overseas gold reserves restricted by U.S. sanctions.
North Korea's COVID-19 response hampered by sanctions on technology imports.
Syria faced difficulties importing ventilators and other medical equipment due to sanctions.
Cuba's access to medical supplies from U.S. companies limited by trade embargo.
U.S. imposed new sanctions on Iran's financial sector in October 2020.
Additional Venezuela sanctions targeting oil sector imposed in 2020.
New North Korea sanctions implemented in 2020 and 2021.
Syria sanctions expanded under Caesar Act in June 2020.
Cuba re-designated as a state sponsor of terrorism in January 2021.
U.S. maintained sanctions despite evidence of their impact on pandemic response.
Sanctions continued to affect targeted countries' economies and healthcare systems through 2024.
Item 49: 2022-2024 - Extensive military aid to Ukraine.
Key facts:
U.S. committed over $52 billion in security assistance to Ukraine since February 2022.
Congress appropriated $174.2 billion in total supplemental funding for Ukraine response.
$48.7 billion allocated for security assistance through supplemental appropriations.
$25.93 billion used to replenish DOD equipment stocks sent to Ukraine.
U.S. provided $23 billion in direct budget support to Ukrainian government.
USAID contributed $20.2 billion to World Bank-managed PEACE Fund for Ukraine.
U.S. delivered critical weapons systems including Javelins, air defense systems, and armored vehicles.
U.S. supplied artillery ammunition, antitank weapons, and other battlefield equipment.
Multiple presidential drawdown authority packages issued, including $225 million in June 2023.
U.S. deployed two aircraft carrier strike groups to eastern Mediterranean.
DOD announced $1.5 billion package using Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative funds.
U.S. provided intelligence support and training to Ukrainian military.
U.S. imposed extensive sanctions on Russia's financial sector and key industries.
U.S. restricted dealings with 80% of Russian banking sector assets.
U.S. froze $5 billion of Russian central bank assets.
U.S. banned import of Russian crude oil, liquified natural gas, and coal.
U.S. implemented price cap on Russian oil exports with G7 allies.
U.S. Commerce Department restricted exports of high-tech products to Russia.
U.S. provided $1.9 billion in humanitarian assistance to Ukraine.
U.S. welcomed over 267,000 Ukrainian refugees.
Item 50: Recent Israel-Gaza conflict and U.S. involvement (2023-2024).
Key Facts:
October 7, 2023: Initial attack resulted in Israeli casualties, with investigations suggesting a significant number (potentially around 700) were caused by Israeli forces, including use of the Hannibal Directive.
Israel's military response in Gaza killed over 40,000 Palestinians as of August 2024, the majority being civilians including women and children.
U.S. provided over $52 billion in military aid to Israel since October 2023.
U.S. vetoed multiple UN Security Council resolutions calling for ceasefire.
U.S. bypassed Congress to approve emergency arms sales to Israel.
Biden administration maintained support despite rising Palestinian civilian death toll.
U.S. opposed South Africa's genocide case against Israel at International Court of Justice.
Israel destroyed a significant portion of Gaza's infrastructure, including hospitals, schools, and residential areas.
U.S. provided intelligence support to Israeli military operations.
As of November 8, 2024, reports indicated continued Israeli military operations in Gaza, with daily casualties often exceeding 100 Palestinians, many of whom are women and children.
The conflict has expanded to involve multiple fronts: Israel is currently engaged in military actions against Hamas in Gaza, Hezbollah in Lebanon, and facing threats from Iranian-backed militias in Syria and Iraq.
Ongoing tensions with Iran have led to fears of a broader regional conflict, with potential for escalation involving multiple countries and non-state actors.
Israeli military operations in Lebanon have resulted in over 3,500 deaths and approximately 15,000 injuries since the onset of hostilities in October 2023.
The humanitarian crisis in Gaza has worsened significantly due to continuous military operations and blockades, leading to severe shortages of food, water, and medical supplies.
Reports indicate that Hezbollah has launched numerous attacks into northern Israel since October 8, 2023, claiming these actions are in solidarity with Palestinians.
The situation has led to a significant displacement of civilians in both Gaza and Lebanon; nearly 1.2 million people have been displaced from their homes in Lebanon alone.
The U.S. continues to provide military support to Israel amidst widespread international condemnation for the high civilian death toll and destruction in Gaza and Lebanon.
As Israeli forces continue their operations against Hezbollah in Lebanon, they have faced retaliatory attacks that have resulted in additional casualties on both sides.
The ongoing conflict raises concerns about a potential direct confrontation between Israel and Iran as tensions escalate further; Iran has vowed to respond to Israeli strikes on its territory.
Reports suggest that U.S.-supplied weapons may be inadequate against advanced Iranian missile technology; many Iranian projectiles have successfully penetrated defenses during recent conflicts.
This Summary of events ignores Slavery
Here is some information about that sad history.
Item 1: Indentured Servitude in Colonial America (1600s-1700s)
Began in the early 1600s as a way for Europeans to come to America
Servants agreed to work for a set number of years (usually 4-7) in exchange for passage
Both white and black indentured servants worked side by side initially
Conditions were often harsh, with high mortality rates
After serving their term, servants were granted freedom and often land
Gradually replaced by slavery as the primary labor system in the South
Continued in some form until the early 19th century
Item 2: Introduction of African Slavery (1619-1700)
First recorded arrival of Africans in English North America in 1619 at Jamestown, Virginia
Initially treated similarly to indentured servants
Gradual shift towards hereditary, race-based slavery
1662: Virginia law states children inherit the status of the mother
1664: Maryland becomes the first colony to legally recognize slavery
By 1700, slavery was legally established in most colonies
Triangular trade route established between Africa, the Americas, and Europe
Item 3: Growth of the Slave Trade (1700-1808)
Exponential growth in the number of enslaved Africans brought to America
Estimated 6-7 million Africans forcibly transported to the Americas
Development of large-scale plantation agriculture, especially cotton and tobacco
1705: Virginia's slave codes define slaves as property
1739: Stono Rebellion in South Carolina, the largest slave uprising in British North America
1793: Invention of the cotton gin increases demand for slave labor
1808: U.S. bans the importation of slaves, though internal slave trade continues
Item 4: Abolitionist Movement Begins (1830s-1860s)
1831: William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing The Liberator
1833: American Anti-Slavery Society formed
1837: Abolitionist Elijah Lovejoy murdered by pro-slavery mob
1838: Frederick Douglass escapes slavery and becomes a prominent abolitionist
1847: Frederick Douglass begins publication of the North Star
1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin
Growth of the Underground Railroad helping slaves escape to free states and Canada
Item 5: Major Slave Rebellions
1739: Stono Rebellion in South Carolina
1800: Gabriel's Rebellion in Virginia
1811: German Coast Uprising in Louisiana
1822: Denmark Vesey's planned rebellion in Charleston, South Carolina
1831: Nat Turner's Rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia
These rebellions led to stricter slave codes and increased fear among slave owners
Item 6: Compromises Over Slavery (1820-1850)
1820: Missouri Compromise admits Missouri as a slave state, Maine as a free state
1836: Gag Rule in Congress tables discussion of slavery
1846: Wilmot Proviso attempts to ban slavery in territories acquired from Mexico
1850: Compromise of 1850 includes stricter Fugitive Slave Act
1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act repeals Missouri Compromise, leads to "Bleeding Kansas"
1857: Dred Scott decision declares African Americans are not citizens
These compromises ultimately failed to prevent the Civil War
Item 7: Civil War and Emancipation (1861-1865)
1861: Civil War begins with the attack on Fort Sumter
1862: District of Columbia abolishes slavery
January 1, 1863: Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation
1864: Senate passes 13th Amendment abolishing slavery
April 9, 1865: Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Court House
April 14, 1865: Lincoln assassinated
December 6, 1865: 13th Amendment ratified, officially abolishing slavery
Item 8: Reconstruction and Its Aftermath (1865-1877)
1865-1866: Black Codes enacted in Southern states to restrict freedmen's rights
1866: Civil Rights Act passed, granting citizenship to all persons born in the U.S.
1867: Reconstruction Acts divide the South into military districts
1868: 14th Amendment ratified, granting citizenship and equal protection under the law
1870: 15th Amendment ratified, granting voting rights to all male citizens
1871-1874: Rise of the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups
1877: Compromise of 1877 ends Reconstruction, leading to Jim Crow era
Item 9: Jim Crow Era and Segregation (1877-1954)
1881: Tennessee passes first Jim Crow law, segregating railroad cars
1896: Plessy v. Ferguson upholds "separate but equal" doctrine
Early 1900s: Great Migration of African Americans to Northern cities begins
1909: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) founded
1915: Revival of the Ku Klux Klan
1920s-1930s: Harlem Renaissance flourishes
1948: President Truman desegregates the U.S. military
Item 10: Civil Rights Movement and Beyond (1954-Present)
1954: Brown v. Board of Education overturns Plessy v. Ferguson
1955: Montgomery Bus Boycott begins
1957: Little Rock Nine integrate Central High School in Arkansas
1963: March on Washington; Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech
1964: Civil Rights Act passed
1965: Voting Rights Act passed
1968: Fair Housing Act passed; assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
This list provides a comprehensive overview of the history of slavery in the United States, from its beginnings in the colonial era through the Civil Rights Movement. It highlights key events, legislation, and social movements that shaped the African American experience and the nation's struggle with the legacy of slavery.